Memory, Encoding and Retrieval Chan, Lik Hang Nick Course title: Introduction to Educational Psychology, offered by the School of Education Date: May 2006 Ø          Introduction This essay aims to discuss how an understanding of human cognitive architecture and the processes involved in learning, can positively influence the way we present information and communicate with people. The first part of this essay deals with memories. I shall begin this section by describing the modal model. Then, short-term memory and long-tern memory will be discussed. The second part focuses on encoding and retrieval. I shall discuss how does the encoding process affects the recall of information. After this, an example will be given to illustrate my points. Also, the influence in presenting information and communication will be mentioned throughout the essay. Ø          Memory Major aspects of human cognitive architecture include sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. They may be described by introducing the modal model. After a brief review of the model, short-term and long-term memory and the interrelationship of them will be discussed in detail. According to Burning, Norby, Ronning, and Schraw, memory processes are traditionally categorised into acquisition, storage and retrieval. Cognitive scientists in the 1950s started using models to explain human cognition. The modal model is an useful one. Memory systems are separated into sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. The system starts with sensory memory. Stimuli are perceived and recognized and then moved to short-term memory. By encoding, information is then stored in long-term memory. When the information is needed, it can be retrieved from long-term memory to short-term memory (Burning, et al., 2004, p.15-18). At the short-term memory (or working memory) stage, information is in a state of activation and can be accessed immediately and effortlessly (Eysenck and Keane, 2005, p.193). Notably, as Miller argues, "…the span of immediate memory impose severe limitations on the amount of information that we are able to receive, process, and remember" (1956). Researches show that our attention or the capacity of working memory is limited. Human cannot handle too many tasks at the same time. If one tries to do too many things at once, he probably ends up doing every task badly (Burning, et al., 2004, p.23-24; Harris and Leahey, 1989, p.121). Another concern is that information can be quickly forgotten, and mainly due to interference. As the capacity of short-term memory is limited, the processing cycle is disturbed by new information (Burning, et al., 2004, p.26-27; Harris and Leahey, 1989, p.122). Miller proposes that, "by organizing the stimulus input simultaneously into several dimensions and successively into a sequence or chunks, we manage to break (or at least stretch) this informational bottleneck" (1956). For example, 20060425 maybe meaningless. However, if it is putted into chunks of 2006, 04 and 25, it may be understood as the Anzac Day (25th April, 2006) and hence easier to remember. Practically, if one presents chunks of meaningful information, it helps the receiver to grasp the idea. Sweller states that information stored in long-term memory is like biological information stored in a genetic code. He thinks that "…permanent store of information will determine the biological characteristics of a species just as the large and relatively permanent store of knowledge held in long-term memory will determine the cognitive characteristics of an individual" (2004, p.11-12). To understand long-term memory, it is worthwhile to distinguish three types of knowledge: declarative, procedural and conditional. Declarative knowledge is factual, "knowing what." Procedural knowledge is "knowing how." Conditional knowledge is "knowing when and why" to apply declarative and procedural knowledge (Burning, et al., 2004, p.37). For instance, knowing that Melbourne was the capital of Australia from 1901 until 1927 is declarative knowledge. Knowing how to cook is procedural knowledge. Buying right amount of food and managing to cook at the right time is conditional knowledge. Thus, there is a connection between working memory and long-term memory. As Sweller comments, "we are only aware of information in working memory. We are unaware of the much more extensive information held in long-term memory unless it is transferred, temporarily, to working memory" (2004, p.12). Once the information is transferred to working memory, it is actived and hence in the process. It is believed that prior knowledge affects our learning. If one has little prior knowledge of a domain, he probably finds difficulties when he learns something new (McGuinness and Wylie, 2004, p.512-513). Also, "…the structure and accessibility of kowledge stored in the long-term memory influences how effectively it can be used for learning new material" (McInerney and McInerney, 2002, p.82). Therefore, to present information, the audience's prior knowledge may be taken into consideration. Activating the audience's prior knowledge effectively helps him to absord new material. Conversely, if entirely new information is presented, the audience probably finds it difficult to get on top of the material presented. I have examined so far that, working-term memory is limited, chunking information and activating prior knowledge helps to present information. In the next section, I shall discuss how information is stored in our memory and how information is recalled. Ø          Encoding and retrieval Information is encoded and then transferred from the working memory to long-term memory. When we recall the information, it is retrieved. Information is transferred from long-term memory to working memory at this stage. Encoding highly affects our long-term memory. Remembering a phone number until you get a pen and paper or the number is dialed is sort of maintenance rehearsal, which seldom last long. If we want to place the information in long-term memory, elaborative rehearsal is preferred. Several strategies can be employed. First, meaningful information is easier to remember. Second, imaged or pictured words are handy to deal with. Third, the method of Loci can be applied. For example, if you have to recall three scientists: Newton, Darwin and Einstein. Try to imagine they are hanging around near an apple tree. Newton was sitting under the tree. Darwin was looking at the flower. Einstein was climbing up the tree. When you recall the scientists, simply take a mental walk through the location. Forth, use the to-be-remembered words to construct a story, and then remember the story. (Burning, et al., 2004, p.66-74). There are a few more strategies, but there isn't enough space to describe in detail. The implication here is that information can be presented in interesting ways so that it is easier to remember. Retrieval is the process that transfers information from long-term memory to working memory. Tulving and Osler show that what we do at the time of encoding affects how well the material is remembered. Organising the material at the time of encoding can enhance memory (cited in Burning, et al., 2004, p.93). This implies that there is a connection between encoding and retrieval. Moreover, encoding activities are designed to enrich the context for retrieval. Here are several results from researches. First, it can be shown that "verbal material self-generated at the time of encoding is better remembered than material that students merely read at encoding." Second, asking "why" about the information just received and answering thought-provoking question improve our recall. Third, since prior knowledge significantly affects human learning, providing cue, which links to what the receiver already know, helps to enrich the level of recall. Forth, encoding conditions effectively increase recall of information. It follows that students perform better if they are tested in the same room in which they study (Burning, et al., 2004, p.94-96). Therefore, to improve retrieval, we may present information in organised and structural manner. Providing cues and linkage between new material and prior knowledge also helps. Ø          Example Consider two teachers, namely B and J. Teacher B does not prepare before teaching. When B walks into the classroom, he starts talking. He simply speaks out what he learnt from the textbook. Without organising, the order of his talk is different from the logical order presented in the textbook. Students are bombarded with B's presentation. There is no interaction between B and students. A few students fall asleep. In contrast with B, teacher J does prepare at the night before he teaches. Knowing that student's attention is limited, he tries to summarise the text and stresses the key points. J always makes jokes while he is teaching. Also, he demonstrates how is the new material related to the earlier material. Knowing that organising material at the time of encoding enhance memory, J often encourages his students to generate their own notes and discuss in the classroom. It turns out that J's students are likely to achieve better than B's students. Maybe this is an extreme example. But my point here is to illustrate certain aspects that I have examined in this essay. Ø          Conclusion In short, our attention is limited, hence try to avoid bombarding the audience with too much information. Be organisied and emphasise key points for the presentation. Prior knowledge significantly affects learning new material. So, drawing linkages between what the audience already knows and what you are going to present would be helpful. Furthermore, the activity and location do matter. Getting the audience involve enriches his memory.   Bibliography Burning, E.H., Norby, M.M., Ronning, R.R. and Schraw, G.J. (2004) Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education. Eysenck, M.W. and Keane, M.T. (2005) Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook. (5th ed.). New York: Psychology Press Ltd. Harris, R.J. and Leahey, T.S. (1989) Human Learning. (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. McGuinness, C. and Wylie, J. (2004) The Interactive Effects of Prior Konwledge and Text Structure on Memory for Cognitive Psychology Texts. British Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol.74, p.497-514. McInerney, D.M. and McInerney, V. (2002) Educational Psychology: Constructing Learning. (3rd ed.). Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Education Miller, G.A. (1956) The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information. The Psychological Review, Vol.63, p. 81-97. Sweller, J. (2004) Instructional Design Consequences of an Analogy between Evolution by Natural Selection and Human Cognitive Architecture. Instructional Science, Vol.32, p.9-31.